JLPT N2 Grammar

Indicates that something was on the verge of happening but did not. "Almost" did something. (e.g., 危ない！もう少しで車にひかれるところだった。 - That was close! I was almost hit by a car.)

Politely states a reason or cause, often for something unavoidable or deserving of understanding. (e.g., 事故があったものだから、それで遅刻してしまいました。 - Because there was an accident, I ended up being late.)

Indicates that after a long process or effort, a negative or disappointing result occurred. (e.g., 長い時間議論したあげく、結論は出なかった。 - After discussing for a long time, we couldn't reach a conclusion.)

An adverb meaning suddenly or without any warning, often with a sense of surprise. (e.g., 彼は会議中にいきなり立ち上がった。 - He suddenly stood up in the middle of the meeting.)

An adverb that indicates a long-awaited event is finally about to happen. (e.g., 明日はいよいよ出発の日だ。 - Tomorrow is finally the day of departure.)

Used to introduce a term or concept, meaning "what is known as" or "so-called." (e.g., 彼は、いわゆる「オタク」だ。 - He is what you would call an "otaku.")

A conjunction used to add another piece of information, often negative. (e.g., このレストランは高いし、おまけにサービスも悪い。 - This restaurant is expensive, and what's more, the service is also bad.)

Expresses a concern that something undesirable might happen. (e.g., あんなにスピードを出したら、事故を起こしかねない。 - If he drives that fast, he could cause an accident.)

A formal way to express inability or hesitation to do something, often due to circumstances or politeness. (e.g., 申し訳ありませんが、そのご要望にはお答えしかねます。 - I apologize, but I cannot grant that request.)

Used to make a judgment based on a primary or even a minor example, implying other things are also the same. (e.g., 彼の服装からして、真面目な人だとわかる。 - Judging from his clothes, you can tell he is a serious person.)

Indicates that a judgment or conclusion is based on a certain standpoint or piece of evidence. (e.g., このデータからすると、計画は成功する可能性が高い。 - Judging from this data, the plan has a high probability of success.)

Expresses a sense of determination or natural consequence because of a certain fact. (e.g., 約束したからには、必ず守るべきだ。 - Now that you've promised, you must keep your word.)

Attached to an adjective or verb stem to describe an outward appearance or impression. (e.g., 彼は何か言いたげな顔をしていた。 - He had a look on his face as if he wanted to say something.)

Used to make a prediction or judgment based on the known character of a person. (e.g., 優しい母のことだから、きっと許してくれるよ。 - Because it's my kind mother we're talking about, I'm sure she will forgive me.)

A formal, written equivalent of 「ないで」, meaning "without doing" something. (e.g., 彼は一度も休むことなく、研究を続けた。 - He continued his research without ever taking a break.)

Indicates a rule, schedule, or expectation that has been set by others. (e.g., この寮では、12時までに帰らなければならないことになっている。 - In this dormitory, it is a rule that you must return by 12 o'clock.)

Expresses that one fact does not necessarily lead to a certain conclusion. (e.g., 日本に住んでいるからといって、日本語が話せることにはならない。 - Just because you live in Japan doesn't mean you can speak Japanese.)

An adverb expressing admiration for something that meets or exceeds expectations. (e.g., さすがプロの料理人だ。味が全然違う。 - As expected of a professional chef. The taste is completely different.)

A conjunction used to add an additional, often surprising or important, piece of information. (e.g., このパソコンは性能が良く、しかも値段も手頃だ。 - This computer has good performance, and moreover, the price is reasonable.)

Indicates that one was able to avoid doing something that would normally be necessary. (e.g., 友達が車で送ってくれたので、バスに乗らずに済んだ。 - My friend gave me a ride, so I was able to get by without taking the bus.)

An adverb expressing a minimum hope or desire in a less-than-ideal situation. (e.g., 全部できなくても、せめて半分は終わりたい。 - Even if I can't finish everything, I want to at least finish half.)

A conjunction used to offer an alternative in a question. (e.g., コーヒーにしますか、それとも紅茶にしますか。 - Would you like coffee, or would you like tea?)

A conjunction expressing that the result in the second sentence is contrary to what would be expected from the first. (e.g., 彼は一生懸命勉強した。それなのに、試験に落ちてしまった。 - He studied very hard. And yet, he failed the exam.)

A conjunction used to make a suggestion or a decision based on the preceding information. (e.g., 「雨が降ってきた。」「それなら、タクシーで行こう。」 - "It started raining." "In that case, let's go by taxi.")

A conjunction used to express a strong impression or feeling, such as surprise or doubt, despite understanding the situation. (e.g., 彼は忙しいらしい。それにしても、電話一本くらいくれてもいいのに。 - I hear he's busy. Even so, he could at least give me a call.)

Indicates that something is as one would expect, given the preceding fact. (e.g., このホテルは五つ星だけあって、サービスが素晴らしい。 - As expected from a five-star hotel, the service is wonderful.)

Emphasizes a natural consequence, often with an emotional nuance. (e.g., 楽しみにしていただけに、旅行が中止になって残念だ。 - Precisely because I was looking forward to it, I'm disappointed the trip was cancelled.)

Expresses that the result is worthy of the effort, reputation, or cause. (e.g., 高かっただけのことはある、このワインはとても美味しい。 - No wonder it was expensive, this wine is delicious.)

Indicates doing the bare minimum or everything possible within a certain scope. (e.g., やるだけはやってみたが、うまくいかなかった。 - I did all that I could, but it didn't go well.)

Used to find a positive aspect in a generally negative situation. (e.g., ボーナスは少なかったが、もらえるだけましだ。 - The bonus was small, but I should be grateful I'm getting one at all.)

A casual, spoken-language version of 「ても」. (e.g., 今から走ったって、もう間に合わないよ。 - Even if you run now, you won't make it.)

A command form used by superiors (e.g., boss to employee, parent to child) to give instructions. It is not used in modern, everyday conversation. (e.g., わかったら、すぐに行動したまえ。 - If you understand, take action immediately.)

A strong, informal expression used to deny any possibility of something happening. (e.g., 宝くじなんて、当たりっこないよ。 - There's no way I'll win the lottery.)

A formal, written-language equivalent of 「ながら」, indicating that two actions are happening simultaneously. (e.g., 彼は将来への不安を感じつつ、大学に通っていた。 - He attended university while feeling anxious about the future.)

Indicates that a change is currently in progress. (e.g., 日本の経済は、回復しつつある。 - The Japanese economy is in the process of recovering.)

Indicates doing something as if it were something else, or with a particular mindset. (e.g., 死んだつもりで、頑張ります。 - I will work hard as if I were dead / with do-or-die effort.)

Expresses that if a certain action or state continues, a negative consequence will result. (e.g., そんなに遊んでいては、試験に落ちますよ。 - If you keep playing around like that, you'll fail the exam.)

Expresses that something cannot be done until another action is completed first. (e.g., 宿題をやってからでないと、遊びに行けません。 - You can't go out to play until you've finished your homework.)

Emphasizes that something is only at a certain level and not more than that. (e.g., 彼の提案は、単なる理想でしかない。 - His proposal is nothing more than a mere ideal.)

Expresses a strong determination to achieve something, even if it requires extreme measures. (e.g., 徹夜してでも、このレポートを終わらせる。 - I will finish this report, even if I have to stay up all night.)

Expresses that a feeling or sensation occurs naturally and uncontrollably to a very high degree. (e.g., 彼のことが心配でならない。 - I can't help but worry about him.)

Used when a repeated or certain action leads to a negative or undesirable outcome. (e.g., そんなにたくさん食べては、太りますよ。 - If you eat that much, you will get fat.)

Expresses the inability to continue doing something due to circumstances or a sense of urgency. (e.g., 試験が近いから、もうのんびりしてはいられない。 - The exam is close, so I can't afford to be relaxing anymore.)

A strong, formal prohibition, often used in rules or laws. (e.g., 人をだましてはならない。 - You must not deceive people.)

Used to state a conclusion or inference based on a preceding fact. "The fact that... means..." (e.g., 電気が消えているということは、彼はもう寝たのだろう。 - The lights are off, which means he has probably already gone to sleep.)

Used for partial negation, clarifying that something is not entirely true. (e.g., 寿司が嫌いというわけではないが、あまり食べない。 - It's not that I hate sushi, I just don't eat it much.)

Used to give examples for a general category. (e.g., 東京や大阪といった大都市では、人口が増え続けている。 - In large cities such as Tokyo and Osaka, the population continues to increase.)

An adverb used when one believes the outcome will be negative or pointless regardless of effort. (e.g., どうせ無理だろうけど、一度やってみよう。 - It's probably impossible anyway, but I'll give it a try.)

An adverb indicating that a conclusion is based on observation or evidence, but is not completely certain. (e.g., どうやら、彼は約束を忘れたようだ。 - Apparently, it seems he forgot the promise.)

Indicates that one cannot do something because of a more pressing situation. (e.g., 忙しくて、旅行どころではない。 - I'm so busy, this is not the time for a vacation.)

Used to make a hypothetical concession, implying that even if the assumption is true, it doesn't change the main point. (e.g., 彼が行くとしても、私は行かない。 - Even if he goes, I will not.)

An adverb emphasizing that something happened much earlier than expected. (e.g., 会議はとっくに始まっていますよ。 - The meeting started long ago.)

A particle that emphasizes a condition, meaning "even if" or "regardless." Often used in set phrases. (e.g., 少なくとも (at least), 遅かれ早かれ (sooner or later).)

Expresses an uncontrollable urge or emotion to do something. Similar to ずにはいられない. (e.g., 彼の冗談を聞いて、笑わないではいられなかった。 - Hearing his joke, I couldn't help but laugh.)

A double negative that suggests something is true to a certain extent. "It's not impossible," "I don't dislike it." (e.g., 納豆は、食べられなくはないですが、好きではありません。 - It's not that I can't eat natto, but I don't like it.)

Indicates that as one thing changes, another thing changes along with it. (e.g., 北へ行くにしたがって、紅葉がきれいになってきた。 - As we went north, the autumn leaves became more beautiful.)

A formal expression used in notices and announcements to state a reason. (e.g., 本日は祝日につき、休業いたします。 - We are closed today due to a public holiday.)

Used to express that every time something happens, a certain feeling or thought arises. Often used as 「何かにつけ」. (e.g., この写真を見るにつけ、楽しかった日のことを思い出す。 - Whenever I see this photo, I remember that fun day.)

A formal, written particle used to indicate a location, means, or time. Equivalent to 「で」. (e.g., 詳細はウェブサイトにてご確認ください。 - Please check the website for details.)

Indicates the purpose or goal for which an action is necessary. (e.g., 日本語が上手になるには、毎日勉強することが大切だ。 - In order to become good at Japanese, it is important to study every day.)

Indicates that something extends over a wide range of time, space, or scope. (e.g., 会議は5日間にわたって行われた。 - The conference was held over a period of five days.)

A classical negative suffix, equivalent to 「ない」. It survives in some set expressions and formal writing. (e.g., 思わぬ結果 (unexpected result), 知らぬが仏 (ignorance is bliss).)

A formal and slightly old-fashioned way of saying 「なければならない」. "Must do." (e.g., 真実を明らかにせねばならない。 - We must reveal the truth.)

A formal, written expression for "not only... but also," similar to 「だけでなく」. (e.g., 彼は学者としてのみならず、政治家としても有名だ。 - He is famous not only as a scholar but also as a politician.)

Expresses that it is reasonable or understandable that someone feels or acts a certain way. (e.g., 彼が怒るのももっともだ。 - It's only natural that he's angry.)

A classical expression for negative volition ("I will not do") or negative conjecture ("probably will not"). (e.g., もう二度と、あんな間違いはするまい。 - I will never make that kind of mistake again.)

A strong, emotional expression of denial or refusal. "As if I would...!" (e.g., あんな店、二度と行くものか。 - As if I'd ever go to a place like that again!)

Used to express that you feel a strong impression or quality about something. (e.g., 彼の演奏には、人の心を動かすものがある。 - There is something in his performance that moves people's hearts.)

A formal conjunction meaning "although" or "but," often used when the result is contrary to what one would expect from the first clause. (e.g., 免許は取ったものの、運転する自信がない。 - Although I got my license, I don't have the confidence to drive.)

An adverb indicating that something will happen after a short period of time has passed. (e.g., 雨はやがて止むでしょう。 - The rain will probably stop before long.)

Expresses that it is impossible to do something because there are no means or methods available. (e.g., 手紙の住所が間違っていて、送りようがない。 - The address on the letter is wrong, so there's no way to send it.)

A formal expression indicating that there is no other option available. (e.g., バスも電車も止まったので、歩いて帰るよりほかない。 - The buses and trains have stopped, so I have no choice but to walk home.)

Indicates that something is created or decided based on a source material, idea, or foundation. (e.g., この小説は、歴史的な事実をもとに書かれている。 - This novel is written based on historical facts.)

Indicates a medium, means, or an entire period of time. (e.g., 私は友人を通じて、彼女と知り合った。 - I got to know her through a friend.)

An adverb meaning "just in case" or "to be on the safe side." (e.g., 一応、傘を持っていこう。 - I'll take an umbrella, just in case.)

An adverb meaning "for now," "tentatively," or "more or less." (e.g., 一応、修理は終わりましたが、まだ問題があるかもしれません。 - The repairs are more or less finished, but there might still be a problem.)

Used to state that a reason is not sufficient to justify a certain conclusion. (e.g., 日本人だからといって、誰もが寿司を好きなわけではない。 - Just because someone is Japanese, it doesn't mean they all like sushi.)

Indicates a perspective from which something is judged. (e.g., 専門家から見ると、この絵はあまり価値がないらしい。 - From an expert's point of view, this painting apparently doesn't have much value.)

Used to suggest something vaguely, without being specific. (e.g., 温かいお茶か何か飲みませんか。 - Would you like to drink some warm tea or something?)

A formal expression indicating that one must do something against their will due to circumstances. (e.g., 上司の命令なので、やらざるを得ない。 - It's an order from my boss, so I have no choice but to do it.)

A conjunction used to add another, often more significant, piece of information. (e.g., 彼は頭がよくて、その上スポーツも万能だ。 - He is smart, and on top of that, he is good at all sports.)

Expresses an extremely strong, almost unbearable feeling or desire. (e.g., 暑くてたまらない。 - I can't stand the heat.)

Used to state a strong conclusion or what the speaker feels is a natural truth. (e.g., 困っている人を助けるのが、人間というものだ。 - Helping people in trouble is what it means to be human.)

Indicates that a judgment is made based on observing a particular situation or action. (e.g., 彼が慌てているところを見ると、何か問題があったのかもしれない。 - Judging from the fact that he is flustered, there might have been some kind of problem.)

A formal expression used to state a conclusion or possibility based on reasoning. (e.g., この地域の人口は、今後も減少し続けると考えられる。 - It can be considered that the population of this area will continue to decrease.)

Emphasizes a necessary condition: unless the first part happens, the second part cannot. (e.g., 実物を見ないことには、買うかどうか決められない。 - Unless I see the actual item, I can't decide whether to buy it.)

Used to express something from another person's perspective or standpoint. (e.g., 親にしたら、子供の将来が心配なのだろう。 - From a parent's point of view, they are probably worried about their child's future.)

Used to say that the conclusion is the same regardless of the options presented. (e.g., 行くにしても行かないにしても、連絡してください。 - Regardless of whether you go or not, please contact me.)

Similar to にしても～にしても, used to indicate that the outcome is the same no matter which of the listed options is the case. (e.g., ビールにしろワインにしろ、飲みすぎは体によくない。 - Whether it's beer or wine, drinking too much is not good for you.)

A formal conjunction meaning "even if" or "granted that." (e.g., どんな理由があるにせよ、暴力は許されない。 - Whatever the reason may be, violence is not permissible.)

A formal expression used to strongly assert that something is the one and only reason or cause. (e.g., 今回の成功は、皆の努力の結果にほかならない。 - This success is nothing other than the result of everyone's effort.)

Expresses that a certain situation or action is the most desirable. "It's best to..." (e.g., 用心するに越したことはない。 - There's nothing better than being cautious.)

Indicates that an action is done following a line, plan, or expectation. (e.g., この川に沿って歩けば、駅に着きます。 - If you walk along this river, you will reach the station.)

Indicates that something changes or is done in accordance with a situation, condition, or request. (e.g., 年齢に応じて、薬の量を変える必要があります。 - It is necessary to change the amount of medicine depending on age.)

Means "in addition to" or "on top of." (e.g., 彼は英語に加えて、フランス語も話せる。 - In addition to English, he can also speak French.)

Expresses the speaker's strong conviction that something is certainly the case. (e.g., そんなの、うそに決まっている。 - That is definitely a lie.)

Indicates that something happens specifically in a particular situation, often with a negative or unexpected result. (e.g., 急いでいる時に限って、バスがなかなか来ない。 - Particularly when I'm in a hurry, the bus doesn't come.)

Means that something applies not only to the mentioned item but to a wider range as well. (e.g., この店は、女性に限らず、男性にも人気がある。 - This shop is popular not just with women, but with men as well.)

A formal expression used for a specific, important occasion. "When," "at the time of." (e.g., 開会に際して、一言ご挨拶申し上げます。 - On the occasion of the opening, I would like to say a few words.)

A formal expression indicating that something is done in preparation for a main event. (e.g., 会議に先立ち、資料が配布された。 - Prior to the meeting, the documents were distributed.)

A very formal and firm way to express certainty. (e.g., このサインは、本人のものに相違ない。 - This signature is without a doubt authentic.)

Indicates that two changes happen concurrently. Similar to につれて. (e.g., 経済の発展に伴って、生活も豊かになった。 - As the economy developed, life also became richer.)

Indicates that something goes against an expectation, prediction, rule, or wish. (e.g., 両親の期待に反して、彼は大学に進学しなかった。 - Contrary to his parents' expectations, he did not go to university.)

Indicates being under the influence, guidance, or conditions of something or someone. (e.g., 厳しい先生の下で、私たちは多くのことを学んだ。 - We learned many things under our strict teacher.)

Used to set aside one issue to focus on another, more important one. (e.g., 味はともかく、値段が安くていい。 - Setting aside the taste, it's good that the price is cheap.)

A formal expression similar to はもちろん, used to say that something is obvious before adding another point. (e.g., 彼は英語はもとより、フランス語も話せる。 - He can speak French, not to mention English.)

Indicates manner or likeness. "In a ... way." (e.g., 猫のようなふうに歩く。 - To walk in a cat-like way.)

Indicates that an action has been done for the first time after a specific period has passed. (e.g., 10年ぶりに、故郷に帰った。 - I returned to my hometown for the first time in 10 years.)

Used to list two contrasting or similar items or states. (e.g., 彼は勉強もできれば、スポーツもできる。 - He is good at both studying and sports.)

Used to list examples in a way that suggests there are other, unmentioned things as well, often with a sense of being overwhelmed. (e.g., レポートやら試験やらで、最近とても忙しい。 - With reports and exams and whatnot, I've been very busy lately.)

Used to express a negative judgment: if a certain bad situation is the case, then a negative outcome is expected. (e.g., こんな簡単な問題も分からないようでは、試験に合格できないだろう。 - If you don't even understand a simple problem like this, you probably can't pass the exam.)

Indicates that an event became the trigger or opportunity for a significant change. (e.g., 入院を契機に、タバコをやめることにした。 - With my hospitalization as a turning point, I decided to quit smoking.)

Indicates that an action is performed while filled with a certain emotion. (e.g., 彼女に、心を込めて手紙を書いた。 - I wrote her a letter filled with my heart (love).)

Means "except for" or "with the exception of." (e.g., 月曜日を除いて、毎日営業しています。 - We are open every day except for Mondays.)

Indicates the center or main focus of an action or state. (e.g., この店は、若者を中心に人気がある。 - This shop is popular mainly among young people.)

Indicates that something applies to all categories without distinction. (e.g., このスポーツセンターは、年齢を問わず、誰でも利用できます。 - This sports center can be used by anyone, regardless of age.)

A formal expression meaning "now that" or "since," indicating a strong sense of duty or determination. (e.g., 引き受けた以上、最後まで責任を持ってやります。 - Now that I've accepted the job, I will see it through responsibly to the end.)

Indicates a state that has continued from a specific point in the past until now. (e.g., 卒業以来、彼とは一度も会っていない。 - I haven't met him even once since we graduated.)

An adverb used to emphasize a reason or circumstance. (e.g., 今日のパーティーには行けません。何しろ、仕事がまだたくさん残っているんです。 - I can't go to the party today. After all, I still have a lot of work left.)

An adverb used to confirm that something is true, often before adding a contrasting point. (e.g., 確かに彼の言う通りだが、納得できない。 - It's certainly as he says, but I can't accept it.)

An adverb used to introduce a statement that is the opposite of what was just said or expected. (e.g., 運動すればやせると思っていたが、逆に太ってしまった。 - I thought I would lose weight if I exercised, but on the contrary, I gained weight.)

A formal expression used to indicate a negative possibility. (e.g., この大雨で、川の水があふれる恐れがある。 - With this heavy rain, there is a fear that the river may flood.)

Indicates the outcome of a preceding action or event. (e.g., 努力の結果、試験に合格することができた。 - As a result of my efforts, I was able to pass the exam.)

Expresses that the effort put into something was worthwhile because of a good result. (e.g., 頑張って勉強した甲斐があって、希望の大学に合格した。 - It was worth studying hard; I got into my desired university.)

A formal way to say 「ときに」. (e.g., お申し込みの際に、住所と氏名をお知らせください。 - When applying, please provide your name and address.)

An adverb indicating a slow, gradual change over time. (e.g., 外は次第に暗くなってきた。 - It gradually became dark outside.)

A formal suffix meaning "from the viewpoint of," "in terms of," or "according to." (e.g., 健康上の理由で、仕事を辞めました。 - I quit my job for health reasons.)

Means "on top of that," used to add another fact (usually of the same positive/negative nature). (e.g., 彼は成績が優秀な上に、スポーツも得意だ。 - He has excellent grades, and on top of that, he is good at sports.)

A very formal and strong version of 「からには」, expressing a firm resolve. (e.g., 約束した上は、必ず実行します。 - Now that I have promised, I will definitely carry it out.)

Emphasizes movement through a place or condition, often one that is difficult. (e.g., 雨の中を、彼は駅まで走った。 - He ran to the station through the rain.)

A formal verb suffix expressing possibility. The reading is usually うる, but can be える in its dictionary form. (e.g., そんなことはあり得る話だ。 - That sort of thing is possible.)

A verb suffix that means to do something completely to the end, often through difficulty or with great effort. (e.g., 彼はフルマラソンを走り抜いた。 - He ran the full marathon to the very end.)

Used to present two contrasting sides of the same subject. (e.g., この薬はよく効く反面、副作用も強い。 - This medicine is effective, but on the other hand, its side effects are also strong.)

An adverb used to summarize the main point of what has been said. (e.g., 要するに、君が言いたいのは、計画に反対だということだね。 - In short, what you want to say is that you're against the plan, right?)

A strong, formal way to make a suggestion or invite others to do something. (e.g., 皆で力を合わせ、この問題を解決しようではないか。 - Let's all work together and solve this problem!)

The negative form of 得る, meaning "cannot" or "impossible." (e.g., 彼の行動は、理解し得ない。 - His actions are impossible to understand.)

A classical negative suffix, primarily found in set phrases or literary language. (e.g., 言わざるを得ない (have no choice but to say).)

Emphasizes that a desired outcome can be achieved only after a certain condition is met. (e.g., 努力してこそ、成功することができる。 - Only by working hard can you succeed.)

A casual request, typically used by women or towards children. A softer version of 「てくれ」. (e.g., ちょっと、これを手伝ってちょうだい。 - Hey, please help me with this.)

Indicates that something happens at the very moment of an action, often with an element of interruption. (e.g., 家を出ようとしたところに、電話がかかってきた。 - Just as I was about to leave the house, the phone rang.)

Indicates that something has enough value to be deserving of respect, praise, etc. (e.g., 彼の行動は、尊敬に値する。 - His actions are worthy of respect.)

Used to single out one or more items from a larger group. (e.g., ３冊の本のうちで、これが一番面白い。 - Of these three books, this one is the most interesting.)

To entrust a task or decision (Noun1) to someone else (Noun2). (e.g., この仕事のことは、君に任せるよ。 - I'll leave this job up to you.)

An adverb describing a change that happened without one noticing. (e.g., 外はいつの間にか暗くなっていた。 - Before I knew it, it had gotten dark outside.)

A very polite and humble way to make a request (humble language - kenjougo). (e.g., こちらの椅子におかけ願います。 - Please have a seat here.)

A formal adverb meaning "approximately" or "roughly." (e.g., パーティーには、おおよそ100人が集まった。 - Approximately 100 people gathered for the party.)

An adverb indicating a high degree of probability, often based on some evidence. (e.g., おそらく、明日は雨だろう。 - It will probably rain tomorrow.)

A formal conjunction used to connect nouns, similar to 「と」. (e.g., 氏名、住所、および電話番号を記入してください。 - Please fill in your name, address, and telephone number.)

Emphasizes that a second action happens immediately after the first, so quickly that it feels simultaneous. (e.g., 彼はベッドに横になるかならないかのうちに、眠ってしまった。 - He fell asleep the very moment he lay down on the bed.)

Indicates that something happens while on the way to or from a place. (e.g., 駅へ行くがけに、スーパーで買い物をした。 - On the way to the station, I did some shopping at the supermarket.)

Expresses a sudden or unexpected change that happens right after a preceding action. (e.g., 赤ちゃんが寝たかと思ったら、もう泣き出した。 - Just when I thought the baby was asleep, it started crying again.)

Used for similes, expressing that a situation appears to be something it is not. (e.g., 彼はまるで、すべてを知っているかのように話す。 - He talks as if he knows everything.)

An expression meaning something is on one's mind, either out of interest, concern, or worry. (e.g., 試験の結果が気になって、眠れない。 - I'm so worried about the test results that I can't sleep.)

Indicates an event that serves as the starting point or trigger for a change. (e.g., 大学入学をきっかけに、一人暮らしを始めた。 - Taking the opportunity of entering university, I started living alone.)

Used to acknowledge a fact before introducing a contrasting or more important point. (e.g., この本は、高いことは高いが、とても役に立つ。 - It's true that this book is expensive, but it's very useful.)

A very formal conjunction for "however." (e.g., 計画は順調に進んだ。しかしながら、いくつかの問題点も明らかになった。 - The plan proceeded smoothly. However, several problems also came to light.)

A conjunction used to state a logical conclusion based on a preceding fact. (e.g., 彼は熱が高い。したがって、今日は学校を休むべきだ。 - He has a high fever. Therefore, he should rest from school today.)

A conjunction used when something someone said reminds you of something else. (e.g., 「田中さん、元気かな。」「そういえば、最近会ってないね。」 - "I wonder how Tanaka-san is." "Speaking of which, I haven't seen him recently.")

Expresses that it is very unlikely that something will happen. (e.g., この雨は、すぐにはやみそうにない。 - This rain is unlikely to stop anytime soon.)

An adverb describing something that happens very quickly. (e.g., 人気商品は、発売されるとたちまち売り切れた。 - The popular product sold out in an instant after it was released.)

An adverb that emphasizes the smallness of a number or amount. (e.g., 会議の出席者は、たったの３人だった。 - There were only three attendees at the meeting.)

Indicates a result that comes after a long period of time, effort, or consideration. (e.g., いろいろ考えた末に、会社を辞めることにした。 - After much thought, I decided to quit my job.)

Expresses that two contradictory actions or feelings exist at the same time. (e.g., 悪いと知りつつも、嘘をついてしまった。 - Although I knew it was wrong, I ended up lying.)

Expresses a very strong, uncontrollable feeling or state. Similar to てたまらない. (e.g., 今日は暇でしょうがない。 - I'm so bored today it can't be helped.)

Used to describe a repeated cycle of actions. (e.g., 書いては消し、書いては消し、なかなかレポートが進まない。 - I write and then erase, write and then erase; I'm not making much progress on my report.)

Expresses that something is expected, reasonable, or deserved. (e.g., あんなに努力したのだから、彼が成功したのは当然だ。 - He worked so hard, so it's only natural that he succeeded.)

Indicates that one cannot definitively say something is the case; there is no guarantee. (e.g., お金があれば幸せになれるというものでもない。 - Having money doesn't necessarily mean you'll be happy.)

A formal way to state the basis for one's consideration or judgment. (e.g., 安全性という点から考えると、この案には問題がある。 - Considering it from the standpoint of safety, this plan has problems.)

Used to describe the manner or content of an action or statement. (e.g., 彼は「また後で」という風に言って、部屋を出て行った。 - He left the room, saying something like "see you later.")

A casual way to report hearsay, suggesting the information is not confirmed. (e.g., 田中さん、来月結婚するとか。聞いた？ - I heard something about Tanaka getting married next month. Did you hear?)

Indicates a role, capacity, or standpoint, often with a nuance of judgment or evaluation. (e.g., 彼としては、その決定に不満だった。 - As for him (from his perspective), he was dissatisfied with that decision.)

Expresses that one must do something due to social or moral obligation, even if they don't want to. (e.g., 親友の結婚式だから、出席しないわけにはいかない。 - It's my best friend's wedding, so I must attend.)

An adverb meaning "still" or "furthermore," often used to add information. (e.g., 詳細は後日連絡します。なお、質問はメールでお願いします。 - We will contact you with the details later. Furthermore, please send any questions by email.)

A formal conjunction used to add a supplementary remark. (e.g., 会議は3時に終わります。なお、その後に懇親会があります。 - The meeting ends at 3. In addition, there will be a social gathering afterwards.)

An adverb that suggests something is vague or not clearly understood. (e.g., 彼はなにやら難しい顔をしている。 - He's making a difficult face for some reason.)

Used to contrast a hypothetical, acceptable situation with a real, unacceptable one. (e.g., 子供ならともかく、大人がそんなことをしてはダメだ。 - If it were a child, it might be different, but an adult shouldn't do such a thing.)

A formal expression used for the start of an important event or action. (e.g., 新しい年を迎えるにあたり、一年の計を立てた。 - On the occasion of welcoming the new year, I made a plan for the year.)

Indicates that something is true without being affected by the preceding condition. (e.g., 天候にかかわらず、試合は行われます。 - The match will be held regardless of the weather.)

A formal expression meaning to be related to or to have an influence on something important. (e.g., それは、人の命にかかわる問題だ。 - That is a problem that concerns people's lives.)

Used to single out an area of expertise or a special skill. (e.g., 料理の腕にかけては、彼に勝る者はいない。 - When it comes to cooking skill, no one is better than him.)

Emphasizes that something is of a lower level or less significant than one might think. (e.g., それは、私の個人的な意見にすぎません。 - That is merely my personal opinion.)

A conjunction meaning "in spite of the fact that," often with a sense of surprise. (e.g., 大雨にもかかわらず、多くの人が集まった。 - Despite the heavy rain, many people gathered.)

Indicates an action taken to meet a request, expectation, or hope. (e.g., 国民の期待に応えて、政府は新しい政策を発表した。 - In response to the public's expectations, the government announced a new policy.)

A common phrase meaning to pay attention to or be careful about something. (e.g., 夜道は危ないから、気をつけてください。 - The streets are dangerous at night, so please be careful.)

Indicates a direction of movement or the target of an action. (e.g., 彼は、ゴールに向かってボールを蹴った。 - He kicked the ball towards the goal.)

A soft way to express an opinion or conjecture, inviting agreement from the listener. (e.g., この方法が、一番いいのではないだろうか。 - I think this method is probably the best, don't you?)

Similar to のももっともだ, expresses that something is reasonable or expected. (e.g., あれだけ努力したのだから、彼が成功したのも当然だ。 - He worked that hard, so it's only natural he succeeded.)

An adverb used to express doubt or to question whether something is truly the case. (e.g., はたして、彼の話は本当だろうか。 - I wonder if his story is really true.)

Used to exclude something from a general statement. (e.g., 冗談は別として、真面目な話をしましょう。 - Setting jokes aside, let's talk seriously.)

A polite way to explain a reason, often used as an excuse. (e.g., すみません、電車が遅れたものですから。 - I'm sorry, it's because the train was late.)

Expresses a strong desire for something that is considered difficult or impossible. (e.g., 過去に戻れるものなら、もう一度やり直したい。 - If I could go back to the past, I'd want to do it all over again.)

Indicates doing something without any concern for a person or situation that one would normally consider. (e.g., 彼女は、人目も構わず大声で泣いた。 - She cried loudly without worrying about what others thought.)

A formal and slightly literary version of 「も」. (e.g., 去年も暑かったが、今年も又、暑い夏になりそうだ。 - Last year was hot, and it looks like this year will also be a hot summer.)

Indicates that there are no other options available. Similar to よりほかない. (e.g., ここまで来たら、もうやるよりしかたがない。 - Now that we've come this far, there's no choice but to do it.)

Indicates a topic of conflict, debate, or discussion involving multiple parties. (e.g., 遺産を巡って、兄弟が争っている。 - The siblings are fighting over the inheritance.)

Used for emphasis in comparisons. "Even more than..." (e.g., 私は、以前にも増して彼のことが好きになった。- I came to like him even more than before.) More commonly used as 「...にも増して」or 「それ以上に」

An adverb that means "once" (as in, "once something happens...") or "for a while." (e.g., 一旦、家に帰ってから、また出かけます。 - I'll go home for a bit, and then go out again.)

An expression meaning "everything from A to Z." (e.g., 引っ越しの準備は、何から何まで大変だった。 - The preparations for moving were difficult, from start to finish.)

Used to emphasize what the speaker thinks is the most important point. (e.g., 何といっても、健康が一番だ。 - After all, health is the most important thing.)

An expression meaning "most of all" or "above all else." (e.g., 無事に帰ってきてくれて、何よりです。 - I'm so glad that you returned safely, more than anything.)

A verb meaning to make the best use of a skill, experience, or opportunity. (e.g., 留学の経験を仕事に活かしたい。 - I want to make use of my study abroad experience in my job.)

An expression for having a vague feeling or hunch. "I feel like..." (e.g., 今日は、何かいいことがありそうな気がする。 - I have a feeling that something good might happen today.)

An adverb meaning "slightly," "a little," or "narrowly." (e.g., 彼は、僅かに微笑んだ。 - He smiled slightly.)

Indicates that something has a general tendency or trend. (e.g., 日本人は、集団で行動する傾向がある。 - Japanese people have a tendency to act in groups.)

Indicates a limit or condition. (e.g., 私が知っている限りでは、彼は正直な人です。 - As far as I know, he is an honest person.)

Indicates the remaining amount. (e.g., あと5分です。 - There are 5 minutes left.) Often written in hiragana. Used with の to modify nouns. (e.g., 残り(の) - the rest)

An adverb or na-adjective meaning "fortunately" or "luckily." (e.g., 幸い、けが人はいなかった。 - Luckily, no one was injured.)

An adverb used to indicate an additional degree, quantity, or point. (e.g., 彼は走り続けた。更に、スピードを上げた。 - He continued running. Furthermore, he increased his speed.)

An adverbial phrase meaning that things are (or are not) going as one wishes. (e.g., 物事が、なかなか思うように進まない。 - Things aren't progressing as I'd hope.)

Indicates that the outcome depends entirely on the preceding noun. (e.g., 明日のハイキングは、天気次第だ。 - Tomorrow's hike depends on the weather.)

Indicates a location just before or in front of a landmark. (e.g., 駅の少し手前に、新しいカフェができた。 - A new cafe opened a little bit before the station.)

An adverb meaning "at the very most," often with a nuance that the amount is small. (e.g., この仕事は、精々一日で終わるだろう。 - This job will be finished in a day at most.)

Indicates that something happens in the middle of an action or journey. (e.g., 学校へ来る途中で、事故を見ました。 - I saw an accident on my way to school.)

Means "without" something that is usually included. (e.g., 冗談抜きで、真剣に聞いてください。 - Jokes aside (lit. without jokes), please listen seriously.)

An adverb used to talk about a very unlikely, often negative, hypothetical situation. (e.g., 万が一、事故が起きたら、すぐに連絡してください。 - If by some chance an accident occurs, please contact me immediately.)

An adverb that emphasizes that a situation has continued for a long time and is still ongoing, often with a sense of surprise or frustration. (e.g., 彼は、未だにその事件の犯人を見つけられないでいる。 - Even now, they still haven't been able to find the culprit of that case.)

An adverb used with a negative predicate to mean that something is not done sufficiently or properly. (e.g., 忙しくて、昨日からろくに寝ていない。 - I've been so busy I haven't slept properly since yesterday.)